Combined network

Provides data delivery.

Combined network is a unification of multiple disparate networks into one (including isolated networks).

Purpose of a combined network: to ensure data exchange.

Example of a combined network where an electronic device (observation/stimulation element) can capture data in a Wi-Fi network, transmit it through an electrical network, Bluetooth, sound waves, and output it via USB. Stimulation signals can be transmitted in the same way (the real scheme of a combined network is more complex).

Example of a combined network where an electronic device (observation/stimulation element) can capture data in a Wi-Fi network, transmit it through an electrical network, Bluetooth, sound waves, and output it via USB. Stimulation signals can be transmitted in the same way (the real scheme of a combined network is more complex).

The combined network contains connected and disconnected (isolated) networks.

Connected networks

In a connected network, data delivery is ensured by:

  • Electrical network;
  • Optical fiber;
  • Ethernet over twisted pair;
  • Wi-Fi;
  • Li-Fi;
  • WiMax;
  • GPRS;
  • EDGE;
  • LTE;
  • 5G, 6G;
  • Zigbee;
  • Bluetooth;
  • Bluetooth Low Energy;
  • LoRa and others.

Electrical network allows transmission of data at speeds from 200 bit/s up to 576 kbit/s (in special cases over 1 Gbit/s) via wires simultaneously used for alternating current power delivery. References: Power-line communication [archive], G.hn [archive], Wide area synchronous grid [archive], Smart grid [archive]. Scientific articles: Current Power Line Communication Systems: A Survey [archive], PowerHammer: Exfiltrating Data from Air-Gapped Computers through Power Lines [archive], (PDF) Analysis of Compromising Video Disturbances through Power Line [archive].

Optical fiber allows data transmission at speeds exceeding 20 Pbit/s. Reference: Optical fiber [archive].

Ethernet over twisted pair allows data transmission at speeds exceeding 10 Gbit/s. Reference: Ethernet over twisted pair [archive].

Wi-Fi allows data transmission up to 300 meters (with amplification over 15 km) at speeds up to 9.6 Gbit/s using radio waves. Reference: Wi-Fi [archive].

Li-Fi allows data transmission up to 10 meters at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s using light waves. Reference: Li-Fi [archive].

WiMax allows data transmission up to 50 km (in special cases up to 80 km) at speeds up to 8 Mbit/s (with amplification up to 1 Gbit/s) using radio waves. Reference: WiMAX [archive].

GPRS allows data transmission at speeds up to 171 kbit/s using cellular network. Reference: General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) [archive].

EDGE allows data transmission at speeds up to 1 Mbit/s using cellular network. Reference: Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) [archive].

LTE allows data transmission at speeds up to 300 Mbit/s using cellular network. Reference: LTE (telecommunication) [archive].

5G, 6G allow data transmission at speeds of 100 Gbit/s (reference: 5G [archive]) and 200 Gbit/s (reference: 6G (network) [archive]) using cellular network.

Zigbee allows data transmission up to 4 km at speeds up to 250 kbit/s using radio waves. Reference: Zigbee [archive].

W-USB allows data transmission up to 10 meters at speeds up to 110 Mbit/s using radio waves. Reference: Wireless USB [archive].

Bluetooth allows data transmission up to 400 meters at speeds up to 2 Mbit/s using radio waves. Reference: Bluetooth [archive].

Bluetooth Low Energy allows data transmission up to 100 meters at speeds up to 2 Mbit/s using radio waves. Reference: Bluetooth Low Energy [archive].

LoRa allows data transmission up to 15 km at speeds up to 27 kbit/s using radio waves. Reference: LoRa [archive].

There are also networks: NFC [archive], RFID [archive], Z-Wave [archive], LPWAN [archive], Sigfox, NB-IoT [archive], Weightless, RPMA, VSAT [archive], and others.

Isolated networks

When an electronic device (observation or stimulation element) or network is isolated, this is called an air gap. Reference: Air gap (networking) [archive].

In an isolated network, data delivery is ensured by:

  • Listening to sound waves;
  • Listening to electromagnetic radiation;
  • USB device.

Listening to sound waves of an isolated electronic device (observation/stimulation element) with other electronic devices (observation/stimulation elements) allows data capture and transmission via sound waves over distances up to 150 meters at speeds of 1 kbit/s. References: Acoustic cryptanalysis [archive], BadBIOS [archive] (possibly an embedded BIOS function). IEEE article: Transferring Data Over Sound - IEEE Innovation at Work [archive]. Scientific article: On Covert Acoustical Mesh Networks in Air [archive]. Technologies: Sonarax [archive], Stimshop [archive].

Listening to electromagnetic radiation of an isolated electronic device (observation/stimulation element) with other electronic devices (observation/stimulation elements) allows data capture and transmission at speeds up to 40 Gbit/s using radio waves. References: Electromagnetic attack [archive], Van Eck phreaking [archive], Radiation intelligence [archive], Tempest (codename) [archive]. Scientific articles: Soft Tempest: Hidden Data Transmission Using Electromagnetic Emanations [archive], GSMem: Data Exfiltration from Air-Gapped Computers over GSM Frequencies [archive]. Video demonstration: TEMPEST - BBC report on Van Eck Phreaking [archive].

USB device connected to an isolated electronic device (observation/stimulation element) allows data capture and transmission at speeds up to 40 Gbit/s using radio waves or cellular network (depending on the connected USB device and installed software). Reference: USB [archive].

Reference: Side-channel attack [archive]. Some capabilities for data capture and transmission to/from isolated networks can be explored on the Advanced Cybersecurity Research Laboratory website: Advanced Cybersecurity Research Laboratory [archive]; Air Gap attack research page [archive].